. # 


The  Normal 
School  Quarterly 


Series  8 


October,  1909 


Number  S3 


THE  LESSON 


A STUDY 

IN  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING 

' By 

{ 

MANFRED  J.  HOLMES 


How  does  the  medow-flower  its  bloom  unfold? 
Because  the  lovely  little  flower  is  free 
Down  to  its  root,  and  in  that  freedom  bold; 

And  so  the  grandeur  of  the  forest  tree 
Comes  not  by  casting  in  a formal  mold. 

But  from  its  own  divine  vitality. 

—Wordsworth 


Entered  August  18,  1902,  at  Normal,  Illinois,  as  second-class  matter 
under  Act  of  Congress  of  July  16,  1894 


PUBLISHT  BY  THE  ILLINOIS  STATE 
NORMAL  UNIVERSITY,  NORMAL,  ILLINOIS 


MOliMAL  SCHOOL  QUARTERLY 


Publisht  by 

the  Illinois 

State  Normal  University. 

Normal,  Illinois 

Series  S 

October,  1909 

Na.mber  33 

T H 

E LESSON 

A STUDY  IN  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING 


A truer  and  more  vital  conception  of  the  lesson  needed. — What 
constitutes  a lesson?  During  the  past  three  years  this  ques- 
tion has  been  submitted  to  nearly  a thousand  normal- school 
students.  Perhaps  the  scholarship  attainment  of  these  stu- 
dents represented  on  an  average  an  equivalent  of  high- 
school  graduation.  About  one-fifth  of  them  had  teach- 
ing experience  varying  from  a few  months  to  several  years. 
There  were  many  different  answers,  but  the  overwhelming 
majority  can  be  reduced  to  one,  namely,  “A  lesson  is  what 
is  assignd  to  the  pupil  to  learn  or  do;”  or  otherwise  ex- 
prest,  a lesson  is  a portion  of  subject-matter  for  a pupil  to 
learn  or  some  task  requird  of  him  by  the  teacher.  This 
represents  the  prevailing  popular  notion  of  what  constitutes 
a lesson,  and  the  great  majority  of  teachers  are  included 
among  those  who  hold  this  view. 

Turning  to  the  writers  on  pedagogy  we  find  no  general 
agreement  regarding  the  extent  and  meaning  of  the  term 
“lesson.”  Instedof  a scientific  concept  designated  by  a gen- 
erally accepted  term,  we  find  variety  and  confusion.  For 
example,  some  speak  of  an  assignment  “lesson,”  a study 
“lesson,”  a recitation  “lesson;”  while  one  form  of  lesson  is 
designated,  not  by  the  word  “lesson”  at  all,  but  by  the  term 
“study-recitation.”  Other  writers  use  the  word  “recita- 
tion.” to  designate  the  entire  process  of  one  form  of  lesson, 
a usage  that  does  not  largely  coincide  with  American  experi- 

The  spellings  recommended  by  the  Simplified  Spelling  Board  are  used  in  the  pub- 
lications of  the  Illinois  State  Normal  University. 


2 


The  Normal  School  Quarterly 

ence.  In  fact,  pedagogical  literature  shows  that  but  few  of 
the  writers  have  made  any  serious  attempt  to  work  out  and 
present  an  adequate,  scientific  conception  of  what  consti- 
tutes a lesson. 

Both  these  notions,  the  popular  and  the  quasi- scientific, 
are  incomplete,  do  not  locate  emphasis  on  the  essential  nature 
and  meaning  of  the  lesson,  and  cause  confusion  in  thinking 
and  in  the  use  of  terms.  This  situation  is  an  unfortunate 
one  for  the  young  teacher  who  is  trying  to  acquire  the  un- 
derlying principles  and  practical  ideals  of  her  art.  The  les- 
son, as  one  of  these  fundamental  concepts,  is  the  very  hart 
and  core,  the  characteristic  form  and  essence  of  the  entire 
school  process;  and  it  should  be  a major  function  of  any 
course  in  the  elements  of  pedagogy  to  give  an  adequate,  ra- 
tional notion  of  the  educational  significance,  the  nature,  and 
the  typical  forms  of  the  lesson.  Such  a concept  is  as  funda- 
mentally important  to  the  teacher  as  is  an  understanding 
of  the  chemistry  and  physiology  of  nutrition  to  the  dietitian. 
It  should  serve  as  a rational  and  scientifically  valid  guide  in 
planning  for  and  directing  the  learning  activities,  and  in 
maintaining  conditions  favorable  to  the  successful  outcome 
of  every  lesson  experience.  Imitativ  teaching  is  non-pro- 
gressiv,  blind  to  its  own  meaning,  and  can  never  attain  mas 
tery  of  the  art.  Teaching  that  precedes  according  to  rational 
principles  is  progressiv,  is  capable  of  self-criticism,  and  can 
reach  the  highest  possible  attainment  in  the  teaching  art. 

This  study  of  what  constitutes  a lesson  aims  to  contribute 
a basic  factor  to  rational  procedure  in  teaching. 

General  preliminary  definition. — Like  all  fundamental 
concepts  in  teaching,  the  notion  “lesson”  should  be  derived 
from  the  nature  and  the  needs  of  the  learner  and  the  nature 
of  the  subject-matter.  A little  thinking  after  getting  the 
attention  on  the  right  set  of  facts  makes  it  clear  that  all  ra- 
tional activity  is  made  up  of  a succession  of  experiences  like 
this:  one  becomes  conscious  of  a want  to  satisfy  or  an  ideal  to 
realize;  it  may  be  a small  and  trivial  matter  or  it  may  be  large 
and  important;  it  may  be  base  or  it  may  be  noble;  it  may  be 
physical  and  sensuous  or  it  may  be  spiritual  and  of  the  high- 
est refinement;  it  may  be  selfish  or  generous.  The  telling 


2 he  Lesson 


3 


fact  is  that  one  has  such  a want  or  such  an  ideal,  and  either 
from  spontaneous  or  deliberativ  choice  the  appropriate 
motor  tendency  is  set  free  to  satisfy  the  want  or  realize  the 
ideal.  If  the  resulting  activity  is  efficient  the  end  is 
attaind,  and  one  is  then  redy  for  another  such  experience, 
ad  infinitum.  Such  units  of  experience  furnish  the  natural 
basis  for  a true  conception  of  the  nature  and  process  of  the 
school  lesson  in  terms  of  the  pupil’s  experience,  and  our 
preliminary  definition  may  be  stated  thus: 

A lesson  is  an  experience  loliich  starts  with  the  idea  of  an 
end  considerd  necessary  or  desirable  to  well-being , and  moves 
thru  the  self-activity  of  the  learner  to  results  in  some  kind  of  ed- 
ucational values.  These  values  may  be  knowledge,  power 
and  skill  in  thinking  and  doing,  interest,  personal  and  social 
worth,  or  some  other  legitimate  educational  value. 

The  great  work  of  the  teacher,  as  teacher,  consists  in 
selecting  and  preparing  for  these  lesson  experiences,  stimu- 
lating and  guiding  the  learning  activities,  and  maintain- 
ing conditions  necessary  to  profitable  outcome  of  the  ex- 
perience. Therefore  a clear  conception  of  the  standard  types 
of  lesson  becomes  a first  necessity  in  preparing  to  teach. 
Two  types  of  lesson  will  be  discust  here:  first,  the  usual 
form  which  begins  with  an  assignment,  moves  forward  in  the 
pupil's  study,  and  ends  in  the  third  stage,  the  recitation. 
This  assignment-study-recitation  lesson  may  be  appropriately 
named  by  abridging  the  long  compound  to  “assignment- 
lesson.”  Secondly,  that  form  in  which  the  study  and  reci- 
tation are  united  in  one  and  the  same  time  period,  the  teacher 
setting  up  the  aim  for  the  pupils,  stimulating  and  guiding 
the  learning  activity,  and  getting  expression  of  results. 
This  is  the  “study-recitation  lesson.”  Only  a concise  out- 
line of  the  more  important  features  of  these  lesson  types  is 
here  attempted. 

THE  ASSIGNMENT-LESSON 

I.  The  assignment. — This  is  generally  the  weakest  place 
in  the  whole  teaching  process.  Probably  to  poor  assign- 
ments are  due  more  waste  and  failure  in  the  pupil’s  study 
and  more  unprofitable  work  in  the  recitation  stage  of  the 
lesson  than  to  any  other  one  cause.  A teacher’s  power  and 


4 


The  Normal  Sdiool  Quarterly 

skill  are  shown  as  much  in  his  method  of  assigning  lessons 
as  in  the  instruction  exercises  he  conducts.  But  to  be  able 
to  make  a good  assignment,  one  must  know  just  what  it  is 
in  itself  and  in  its  vital  relation  to  the  whole  lesson  experi- 
ence. 

What  constitutes  the  essential  features  of  a good  assign- 
ment? When  can  it  best  be  made?  What  determins  its 
length?  How  is  a teacher  to  know  whether  he  is  making  a 
successful  assignment? 

1.  The  assignment  should  give  a clear  idea,  of  the  lesson 
aim  in  terms  of  the  subject-matter  to  be  learnd,  or  in  terms 
of  what  the  pupil  is  to  do.  This  is  a prime  requisit.  Many 
a pupil  is  doomd  to  a sad  waste  of  time,  to  worry,  tofadure, 
to  dislike  of  subject  and  may  be  of  school,  by  indefinit  as- 
signments. 

2.  One  may  have  a perfectly  clear  idea  of  an  end  to  be 
attaind,  yet  active  effort  for  reaching  the  end  may  not  be 
called  forth.  The  second  essential  of  an  assignment  is  the 
stimulation  of  desire,  curiosity,  interest,  regarding  the  aim. 
The  pupil  must  feel  the  aim  is  ivorth  getting,  else  no  helthful, 
adequate  activity  can  be  aroused  to  get  it.  A natural,  helth- 
ful, and  strong  motiv  to  attain  the  end  set  up  depends  upon 
this  feeling  or  judgment  of  value  of  the  aim  in  a school  les- 
son just  as  in  any  other  rational  life  activity. 

3.  But  a clear  idea  of  the  aim  and  the  keenest  sense  of 
its  value  will  not  insure  successful  results  of  the  pupil’s 
study.  He  needs  to  know  how  to  go  to  work,  that  is,  by 
what  means  he  can  accomplish  the  task  assignd.  The  third 
essential  of  a good  assignment,  therefore,  is  a clear  idea  of  the 
means  to  be  used  in  attaining  the  aim.  Materials  to  be  used, 
objects  or  specimens  to  be  studied,  references  to  be  red, 
maps  to  be  consulted,  methods  of  going  at  the  work  should 
be  clearly  enough  designated  to  enable  the  pupil  to  go  ahed 
intelligently  without  worry  or  waste  of  time.  Otherwise  he 
has  just  grounds  for  holding  the  teacher  responsible  for  his 
poor  work  or  failure. 

4.  An  assignment  should  be  attainable.  It  should  be 
adapted  to  the  general  ability  and  preparation  of  the  pupil, 
and  to  the  time  available  for  study.  It  is  easy  for  the  teacher 


The  Lesson 


5 


to  assume  that  the  pupil  or  the  class  is  redy  for  the  next 
portion  of  subject-matter  whatever  it  may  be,  if  the  present 
lesson  has  been  well  learnd.  But  one  is  soon  cured  of  such 
a delusion  if  she  faithfully  prepares  herself  on  the  subject- 
matter  before  she  assigns  it  to  her  class.  By  a comparison 
of  her  own  experience  in  thought  mastery  of  the  subject- 
matter  with  the  probable  experience  her  pupils  will  have, 
she  will  frequently  find  difficulties  that  she  cannot  expect 
the  pupils  to  overcome  alone  without  some  suggestions  or 
warnings  or  possibly,  at  times,  some  advance  explanations. 

The  teacher  who  is  both  wise  and  thoughtful  will  avoid 
making  assignments  that  cannot  be  masterd  within  the  regu- 
lar time  available  for  study.  Every  teacher  should  require 
the  maximum  amount  of  excellent  work  that  can  be  reason- 
ably expected  within  a given  time;  but  to  give  work  that 
cannot  possibly  be  done  within  the  time  that  can  legitimately 
be  devoted  to  it  is  a vulgar  pedagogical  blunder,  and  is  fol- 
lowed by  a train  of  evils  that  tend  to  defeat  the  valuable 
purposes  of  a regular  study  program. 

5.  An  assignment  should  be  logical.  Many  lessons  call  for 
special  care  in  this  respect.  A careful  indication  of  the 
chief  points  in  a unit  of  subject-matter  is  not  sufficient.  It 
is  often  necessary  to  point  out  the  logical  connection  or 
thought  relation  of  these  topics.  It  is  equally  important  at 
times  to  point  out  the  logical  relation  between  the  present 
assignment  and  other  lessons.  With  this  provision  of  a 
well-made  assignment  the  pupil  will  be  able  to  get  the 
thought  in  its  logical  continuity  and  unity  insted  of  in  iso- 
lated, unrelated  fragments.  Such  study  conditions  also  in- 
sure enjoyable  as  well  as  successful  effort. 

When  can  the  assignment  be  made  to  best  advantage? 
With  the  little  children  of  the  primary  grades  the  directions 
and  materials  for  the  work  or  study  period  must  be  given 
just  before  the  beginning  of  that  period.  But  later  the  as- 
signment will  be  made  at  the  beginning  or  the  end  of  the 
recitation  period.  Which  is  the  better  place?  Assigning 
at  the  beginning  insures  ample  time  to  do  this  important 
piece  of  work  well.  This  avoids  the  danger  and  mischief  of 
an  indefinit  and  fragmentary  assignment  that  a teacher 
hustles  to  make  when  the  recitation  work  continues  to  the 


6 


The  Normal  School  Quarterly 

very  close  of  the  period.  But  a serious  disadvantage  is  in- 
volvd  with  the  advantage  of  ample  time  by  assigning  at  the 
beginning  of  the  period.  Each  advance  lesson  is  usually  a 
continuation  of  the  preceding  experience,  and  its  success 
depends  upon  a satisfactory  mastery  of  the  preceding  assign- 
ment. When  such  relation  exists  between  the  old  and  the 
new,  the  pupil  can  appreciate  the  advance  assignment  and 
will  be  redy  for  successful  study  when  he  sees  such  assign- 
ment in  its  relation  to  the  ideas  he  alredy  has.  Now,  no 
teacher  is  wise  enough  to  know  how  well  or  how  poorly  her 
pupils  have  learnd  the  current  lesson  until  she  has  dis- 
co verd  that  fact  in  the  recitation;  therefore  the  only  place 
at  which  she  can  be  sure  she  is  making  the  thought  connec- 
tion between  the  new  and  the  old  lesson  is  after  the  old  les- 
son is  discust.  She  must  provide  some  warning  device  that 
will  enable  her  to  take  sufficient  time  for  making  a good  as- 
signment at  the  end  of  the  recitation  period.  With  classes 
of  college  grade  it  may  be  more  practicable  than  in  ele- 
mentary grades  to  make  the  assignment  at  the  beginning  of 
the  recitation  hour. 

Other  minor  arguments  showing  relativ  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  assigning  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  close 
of  the  recitation  period  need  not  be  considerd  here. 

How  can  a teacher  make  an  assignment  that  is  neither 
too  long  nor  too  short,  but  just  right?  This  can  be  done 
happily  if  she  has  well  in  mind  two  main  things  that  de- 
terminthe  length  of  the  assignment;  (1)  the  general  capabil- 
ity of  her  pupils  and  their  special  preparation  for  under- 
standing or  doing  the  advance  work;  (2)  the  time  and  means 
available  for  study.  The  amount  of  subject-matter  to  be 
coverd  within  a given  time,  however  important  that  may 
be  at  times,  should  never  be  a primary  consideration  in  de- 
termining the  length  of  assignments  when  the  other  two 
factors  have  a claim  for  consideration.  This  matter  of 
length  of  assignment  becomes  a moral  as  well  as  a pedagogi- 
cal concern  when  the  pupils  are  under  the  instruction  of 
more  than  one  teacher.  Grinding  boys  and  girls  between 
the  pressure  of  unreasonable  requirements  is  sheer  brutal- 
ity. 


The  Lesson 


7 


The  evils  of  too  short  an  assignment  are  hardly  less 
mischievous.  The  amount  of  work  requird  must  command 
the  respect  of  the  pupil,  and  furnish  plenty  of  profitable 
work  for  him  during  the  time  he  should  devote  to  it.  Some- 
times there  are  pupils  who  are  so  far  above  the  average 
ability  of  the  class  that  they  can  prepare  an  assignment  that 
is  proper  for  the  class  as  a whole  and  have  time  left.  What 
shall  be  done  with  such  time?  There  are  three  chief  ways 
by  which  a teacher  may  solve  this  problem.  (1)  If  such  pupil 
needs  more  than  the  allotted  time  for  preparing  some  other 
subject  in  which  he  is  not  so  proficient,  he  should  use  time 
gaind  in  one  study  period  to  make  good  his  deficiency  in  the 
other.  (2)  The  teacher  may  give  such  pupil  special  topics 
in  addition  to  the  general  class  assignment.  Thus,  he  will 
be  getting  a broader  and  richer  mastery  of  the  subject,  and 
will  have  the  stimulating  and  helthful  experience  of  making 
a distinct  individual  contribution  to  the  life  of  the  class.  (3) 
The  pupil  may  use  time  thus  gaind  to  pursue  some  special 
interest  or  bent — literary,  historical,  manual,  or  scientific. 
The  third  way  of  using  the  surplus  time  is  highly  commend- 
able; but  no  pupil  should  have  this  privilege  until  the  as- 
signd  lesson  is  actually  and  thoroly  prepared. 

TI.  The  pupiVs  study. — This  second  stage  of  the  assign- 
ment lesson  has  been  and  still  is  a very  sick  place  in  the 
school  process.  It  has  been  the  subject  of  much  study  during 
the  last  five  or  six  years.  Several  articles  and  at  least  two 
books*  have  resulted  from  the  attempts  to  find  out  just  what 
has  been  the  matter  and  how  the  weak  places  may  be  made 
strong. 

The  investigators  assert  that  much  of  the  pupil’s  study 
time  is  not  given  to  ernest  effort,  and  much  of  the  effort  that 
is  ernest  is  ineffectiv  because  the  pupil  does  not  know  how 
to  study  or  because  the  teacher  does  not  create  and  maintain 
conditions  necessary  to  successful  study.  The  first  step  in  the 
practical  solution  of  this  study  problem  for  each  teacher  is 
to  get  clearly  in  mind  just  what  are  the  essential  values  and 
purposes  of  the  pupil’s  study.  We  may  enumerate  the  most 
essential  of  these. 

*F.  M.  McMurry’s  “IIoiv  to  Study."  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Chicago  and  New  York. 
Lida  B.  Earhart’s  "Teaching  Children  how  to  Study."  Houghton  Mifflin  Co. 


8 


The  Normal  School  Quarterly 

1.  The  primary  value  and  purpose  of  the  pupil's  study 
is  a mastery  of  the  assignment.  All  other  values  depend  upon 
this  and  are  incidental  to  it.  It  is  not  to  be  inferd,  however, 
that  the  mastery  of  the  assignment  is  an  end  in  itself  from 
the  teacher’s  point  of  view.  It  may  be  such  so  far  as  the 
pupil  is  conscious  of  results,  but  it  is  thru  a proper  method 
of  study  and  mastery  of  the  assignment  that  the  essential 
educational  values  arise. 

2.  The  pupil’s  study  should  promote  self-dependence^ 
and  self -guidance  in  getting  knowledge  and  in  other  activities. 
One  rational  justification  of  the  study  period  is  that  it  gets 
the  learner  by  himself  to  do  something  that  it  is  his  business 
and  duty  to  do  without  constant  oversight  and  direction.  Even 
if  it  were  practically  possible  to  follow  the  study- recitation 
plan  of  German  elementary  instruction,  we  would  not  do  it 
in  America  because  it  tends  too  strongly  toward  making 
pupils  dependent  upon  the  teacher  for  constant  thought 
guidance. 

3.  It  should  promote  good  mental  habits.  Some  of  these 
are  concentration  of  attention,  selection  of  essentials  for 
proper  distribution  of  emphasis,  thinking  the  necessary  re- 
lation of  things  and  the  proper  sequence  of  ideas,  correct 
and  effectiv  methods  of  study,  the  habit  of  tracing  thought 
relations  and  using  one’s  knowledge  to  get  more  knowledge 
and  guide  action.  Thru  the  mastery  of  the  assignment 
should  come  these  disciplins  of  mind  as  well  as  an  addition 
to  one’s  apperceptiv  power  for  still  more  advanced  thought 
experiences  and  practical  action. 

4.  Good  moral  and  social  habits  should  be  promoted  by 
the  pupil’s  study.  There  is  no  place  in  the  whole  school 
process  that  is  better  for  the  cultivation  of  certain  personal 
and  social  virtues.  Here  the  pupil  is  by  himself  with  serious 
business  to  attend  to,  a duty  to  perform.  Simple  honesty, 
self-respect,  personal  honor  all  depend  upon  loyalty  to  a 
properidealof  doing  business,  and  fidelity  to  a sense  of  duty. 
The  study  period  offers  one  of  the  best  opportunities  for  the 
cultivation  of  strict  honesty.  On  the  social  side,  the  virtue 
of  justis,  and  consideration  for  others’  rights,  can  be  promoted. 
No  pupil  should  allow  himself  to  violate  the  right  of  a school- 


The  Lesson 


9 


mate  by  disturbing  him  unless  some  serious  emergency  makes 
it  necessary.  Inhibition  and  self-control  in  accordance  with 
personal  ideals  and  social  relations  are  as  essential  as  initia- 
tiv  at  a time  when  positiv  moral  action  is  cald  for. 

But  in  order  that  the  study  period  may  yield  these 
precious  educational  results  the  teacher  must  clearly  see 
them  as  legitimate  and  necessary  outcome  of  this  stage  of 
the  lesson  experience;  this  understanding  of  what  the  pupil’s 
study  should  do  should  be  reinforced  by  deep  and  abiding 
conviction  that  the  success  of  teacher  and  pupil  depends 
upon  getting  such  results;  and  finally  she  needs  to  un- 
derstand how  to  secure  and  maintain  conditions  favorable  to 
the  highest  success  of  the  pupil’s  study. 

What  are  the  essential  conditions  upon  which  the  suc- 
cess of  the  pupil’s  study  depends?  The  teacher  may  think 
these  under  three  groups;  (1)  the  physical,  which  includes 
the  bodily  condition  of  the  pupil  and  the  physical  environ- 
ment; (2)  the  mental;  and  (3)  the  social.  Of  course  the  con- 
ditions necessary  to  successful  study  are  likewise  essential 
to  excellent  work  in  every  phase  of  the  school  process  and 
to  a wholesome,  vigorous,  and  happy  tone  of  school  life  in 
general. 

There  is  no  exact  method  of  mesuring  the  relation  be- 
tween general  bodily  conditions  and  working  power;  but 
everybody  knows  that  one’s  capacity  for  amount  and  quality 
of  work,  either  physical  or  mental,  varies  with  general  helth, 
the  amount  of  working  energy  available,  and  with  the  amount 
of  bodily  pain  or  discomfort.  It  is  important  to  bear  in  mind 
that  this  holds  true  of  children  even  more  than  with  older 
persons  whose  maturer  will  power,  practical  judgment,  and 
sense  of  responsibility  may  go  far  to  offset  unfavorable 
bodily  conditions. 

What  can  the  teacher  do  to  secure  and  maintain  these 
general  bodily  conditions  so  important  to  the  best  results  of 
study?  Most  of  the  out-of-school  factors  that  make  for  fav- 
orable or  unfavorable  bodily  conditions  are  not  under  the 
teacher’s  control.  But  she  can  do  much.  She  should  faith- 
fully protect  the  children  from  drafts,  from  temperatures 
too  high  or  too  low  in  cold  wether,  from  unreasonable  ex- 


10 


The  Normal  School  Quarterly 

posure;  she  should  be  vigilant  in  preventing  over-fatigue 
from  either  work  or  play ; recreation  periods  properly  used 
will  maintain  normal  vigor  and  freshness  for  work  without 
exhausting.  Beyond  these  things  the  teacher  can  detect  in- 
cipient colds  or  other  physical  trouble  and  give  the  neces- 
sary advice  to  pupil  or  parent  for  prompt  and  proper  care. 
This  may  often  prevent  days  of  half- wasted  effort  by  a half- 
sick  pupil,  disturbance  of  the  whole  school,  or  loss  by  ab- 
sence. 

By  a little  foresight  the  teacher  can  gard  against  un- 
necessary interruptions  and  disturbing  noises.  She  can  also 
secure  hygienic  seating  for  helth  and  comfort,  maintain 
clenly  conditions,  and  do  something  to  make  the  surround- 
ings plesant  and  beautiful. 

Poor  study  is  often  due  to  subnormal  conditions  of  sight, 
hearing,  or  motor  control.  These  subnormalities  should  be 
detected  promptly  by  the  teacher  and  brought  appropriately 
to  the  attention  of  the  parents.  Sometimes  proper  seating 
will  give  a pupil  with  subnormal  vision  or  hearing  just  the 
advantage  he  needs  in  order  to  do  effectiv  work. 

Control  of  the  physical  environment  is  strictly  the 
teacher’s  business,  and  is  entirely  possible  in  a properly 
constructed  and  well-equipt  bilding.  But  even  in  a poor  bild- 
ing  with  no  special  scientific  provision  for  ventilation,  heat- 
ing, and  lighting  an  intelligent  and  faithful  teacher  will  find 
a way  to  maintain  these  primary  conditions  of  helth  and 
work.  With  the  excellent  manuals  available  on  school 
hygiene  and  management  no  teacher  can  be  held  giltless 
who  does  not  inform  herself  as  to  what  are  proper  school- 
room conditions,  and  how  to  create  and  control  them. 

The  maintenance  of  favorable  physical  conditions  is 
only  a means  to  secure  the  best  mental  conditions  for  the  full- 
est possible  attainment  of  the  values  that  should  be  de- 
rived from  the  pupil’s  study.  What  are  these  essential 
mental  conditions? 

1.  A clear  idea  of  the  lesson  aim  and  the  means  by  which 
such  aim  can  be  attaind  is  the  first  mental  requisit.  This 
condition  will  be  met  if  the  assignment  is  effectiv.  If  a 
teacher  is  in  dout  as  to  whether  some  pupil  has  faild  to  get 
the  assignment  clearly,  it  is  a good  plan  to  ask  such  pupil  to 


The  Lesson  11 

state  what  he  understands  the  assignment  to  be.  This  gives 
the  opportunity  to  amend  or  repeat  if  necessary. 

2.  Everybody  knows  that  in  every  department  of  life  a 
right  mental  attitude  toward  work  is  necessary  to  splendid 
effort  and  excellent  results.  The  pupil  needs  to  see  the  aim 
of  the  lesson  as  something  worth  working  for.  This  feeling 
or  judgment  of  value  is  interest]  and  with  a lively  interest 
the  necessary  attention  will  be  enlisted.  It  is  an  ideally 
happy  school  situation  if  the  pupil’s  sense  of  value  of  the 
lesson  is  found  in  the  attainment  and  possession  of  the  aim 
for  its  own  sake.  But  it  is  often  necessary  and  proper  that 
the  attainment  of  a lesson  aim  be  merely  a means  of  get- 
ting some  other  value. 

3.  Yet  no  life  of  effort  is  so  elysian  that  all  is  balmy 
breeze  and  flowery  fragrance.  Every  child  of  man  must  learn 
that  grim  determination  is  as  necessary  on  the  road  of  life 
as  is  the  inspiration  of  exalted  impulse.  The  agony  of 
Gethsemene  is  as  true  to  life  as  the  transfiguration  of  Her- 
mon.  As  the  pupil  passes  from  tender  childhood  to  vigor- 
ous youth  he  should  gradually  increase  in  power  to  bring  an 
invincible  determination  to  bear  upon  performing  a piece  of 
work  that  is  obviously  the  necessary  and  proper  thing  at 
a given  time.  So  a determination  to  get  the  lesson  is  the  third 
mental  condition  favorable  to  successful  study. 

4.  Belief  in  the  attainability  of  the  end  is  another  mental 
condition  necessary  to  successful  attack  and  completion  of 
any  undertaking.  If  the  assignment  has  observd  the  law 
of  adaptation  and  the  law  of  apperception,  this  fourth  men- 
tal condition  will  be  assured. 

Successful  study  depends  upon  right  social  conditions. 
The  teacher  can  do  much  to  propagate  a wholesome  social 
atmosphere  in  the  school  life.  All  the  social  decencies  and 
amenities  should  obtain  in  the  schoolroom  as  in  the  parlor. 
But  thru  the  teacher’s  social  attitude  should  be  reveald  a 
genuin  interest  in  each  pupil’s  welfare,  and  a true  considera- 
tion of  each  personality.  Timidity,  suspicion,  indifference, 
and  even  a chronic  tendency  to  set  one’s  self  in  opposition 
to  the  social  order  in  general  may  be  remedied  by  the  kind, 
just,  reasonable,  and  generous  spirit  of  the  teacher.  It 


12 


The  Normal  School  Quarterly 

should  be  rememberd  that  in  all  relations  of  management, 
government,  and  casual  intercourse,  the  law  of  social  reci- 
procity operates.  One  gets  what  he  gives. 

“Give  love,  and  love  to  the  heart  will  flow 
A strength  in  your  utmost  need 
Have  faith,  and  a score  of  hearts  will  show 
Their  faith  in  your  word  and  deed.” 

Mutual  confidence  and  respect,  goodwill , mutual  apprecia- 
tion, personal  consideration,  and  a spirit  of  helpful  servis 
give  the  sound  social  foundation  for  helthful  and  happy  ef- 
fort in  school. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  secure  a right  allotment  of  the 
study  time  for  each  subject.  The  daily  program  should  show 
both  the  study  and  the  recitation  periods;  and  the  pupils 
should  learn  by  experience  the  value  of  following  faithfully 
a regular  program  of  study. 

III.  The  recitation. — The  third  stage  of  the  assignment- 
lesson  brings  pupils  and  teacher  together  again  in  the 
recitation.  The  original  and  literal  meaning  of  the  word 
“recitation”  was  a word-for-word  repetition  of  what  the  pupil 
had  memorized;  but  its  present  meaning  is  vastly  enricht 
by  the  character  and  extent  of  the  activities  it  now  desig- 
nates. Today  the  true  type  of  recitation  is  the  very  hart- 
core,  the  circulatory  and  nervous  plexus  of  the  school  life. 
Here  we  have  the  final  stage  of  the  lesson  experience  in  which 
the  processes  of  mental  nutrition,  assimilation,  and  stim- 
ulation are  resulting  in  the  higher  products  of  feeling  and 
thought- life  with  their  appropriate  functional  forms  of  ac- 
tivity, either  actual  or  potential.  Every  recitation  exercise 
should  be  an  event  or  a definit  preparation  for  a real  event 
in  the  educational  experience  of  the  pupil. 

To  make  the  recitation  yield  its  true  values  to  the 
utmost  the  teacher  should  have  a clear  and  inspiring  idea  of 
what  this  stage  of  the  lesson  should  accomplish.  What  are 
the  chief  values  and  purposes  of  the  recitation? 

1.  The  recitation  starts  with  two  assumptions:  (1)  that 
an  assignment  has  been  made,  and  (2)  that  the  pupils  have 
studied  the  assignment  and  masterd  it  to  the  best  of  their 
ability.  Logically,  then,  the  first  function  of  the  recitation 
is  to  discover  the  degree  and  character  ofthepupiVs  mastery  of 
the  assignment.  This  ought  not  to  be  cald  a test.  That  view 


The  Lesson 


13 


of  it  brings  the  pupil  to  the  exercise  with  a wrong  mental 
attitude.  The  pupil  should  come  to  the  recitation  with  a 
feeling  that  it  is  his  opportunity  to  report  the  results  of  his 
study,  to  compare  his  results  with  those  of  his  classmates, 
to  correct  and  revise  his  thought  when  necessary,  and  to 
extend  his  knowledge  of  the  subject  or  acquire  further  skill 
in  doing  something. 

When  the  grammar  grades  are  reacht,  if  not  before,  the 
recitation  should  be  a place  of  stimulating  companionship  in 
which  the  company  has  serious  business  on  hand  and  holds  it- 
self responsible  for  definit  and  profitable  results.  The 
teacher,  of  course,  will  be  the  stimulator,  guide,  and  mod- 
erator; he  will  distribute  opportunity  equally,  and  precede 
according  to  the  discoveries  he  makes  regarding  the  mastery 
of  the  assignment. 

2.  If  it  is  found  that  pupils  have  faild  to  think  out 
clearly  the  meaning  and  relation  of  ideas  and  facts  the  lesson 
deals  with,  (and  this  is  likely  to  be  true  in  every  lesson), 
then  the  first  vital  creativ  function  of  the  recitation  is  to 
stimulate  and  guide  the  pupils'  thought  to  a clear  and  logical 
organization  of  the  suhject-matter . Holding  pupils  to  thought- 
standards  of  this  character  soon  teaches  them  that  verbal 
memorizing,  however  perfect  and  complete,  does  not  indi- 
cate any  true  mastery  of  educational  value.  This  kind  of 
recitation  work  reacts  favorably  upon  the  learner’s  methods 
and  ideals  of  study. 

3.  Should  the  pupils’  reports  contain  error  or  a too 
narrow  view  of  the  topic,  the  recitation  serves  to  correct  the 
errors  and  add  to  the  knowledge  acquired  in  study.  It  is 
often  a nice  problem  in  the  teaching  art  to  tell  whether  it  is 
best  in  a given  case  for  the  teacher  to  lead  the  pupil  to  see 
and  correct  his  own  error,  whether  the  teacher  should  cor- 
rect it,  or  whether  some  other  pupil  in  the  class  should  do 
the  correcting. 

4.  A fourth  valuable  purpose  of  the  recitation  is  to 
teach  right  methods  of  study,  that  is,  of  thinking,  and  to 
establish  proper  ideals  of  excellence  in  work. 

5.  The  recitation  is  the  place  of  all  places  where  the 
teacher  may  acquire  a knowledge  of  the  individual  traits  and 


14 


The  Normal  School  Quarterly 

needs  of  his  pupils.  Thought  traits,  social  traits,  language 
power  and  habits,  physical  condition,  etc.,  with  their  cor- 
responding needs  may  all  be  noted.  Then  thru  watchful 
care  weak  places  should  be  made  strong,  courseness  refined, 
deficiencies  made  good,  and  life  made  glad  and  increasing- 
ly efficient. 

6.  To  cultivate  correct  and  effectiv  language  expression  is 
another  important  function  of  the  recitation.  Thinking  and 
language  are  practically  inseparable.  The  final  stage  of  a 
creativ  thought- process  is  to  formulate  the  thought  in  appro- 
priate language.  Isolated  words,  grammatical  fragments, 
and  even  sentences  that  do  not  reveal  any  logical  sequence 
or  thought  unity  must  be  taken  as  evidence  that  the  pupil 
has  not  graspt  the  thought  clearly  or  completely,  or  that  he 
has  some  very  bad  language  habits.  If  the  first  alternativ 
holds,  the  remedy  is  to  lead  him  to  think  clearly,  then  to  use 
correct  language  in  expressing  his  thought. 

It  is  futil  for  a teacher  to  keep  correcting  a pupil’s 
language  errors  unless  the  pupil  is  interested  in  his  own  im- 
provement. The  psychology  of  removing  an  habitual  error 
and  establishing  the  correct  form  or  usage  presents  three 
stages:  (1)  the  person  in  error  must  be  made  conscious  of  his 
error;  (2)  he  must  learn  what  the  correct  form  or  usage  is; 
and  (8)  he  must  practis  the  correct  language  until  it  becomes 
habitual. 

7.  Of  course  every  recitation  should  thoughtfully  lay 
the  foundation  for  the  next  lesson  and  for  later  work  of  the 
class.  This  implies  that  the  teacher  must  know  what 
the  next  lesson  is  to  be,  and  the  content  of  the  course  of 
study;  and  when  she  feels  she  is  teaching  some  definit  thing 
for  a definit  use,  effectiv  work  is  almost  certain. 

Some  of  the  pedagogical  laws  underlying  a successful 
lesson  process  should  serve  the  teacher  as  a practical  guide. 

The  law  of  aim. — Every  rational  act  requires  a clear  and 
valuable  aim  to  insure  its  success. 

The  laiv  of  interest. — Rational  activity  necessary  to  the 
attainment  of  a given  aim  can  be  aroused  only  by  the  knowl- 
edge or  belief  that  the  aim  is  worth  getting. 

The  laiu  of  adaptation  in  teaching. — Instruction  is  success- 


The  Lesson 


15 


ful  only  when  adapted  to  the  capability  and  preparation  of 
the  learner. 

The  law  of  apperception. — The  meaning  of  new  impres- 
sions or  ideas  can  be  interpreted  only  as  they  become  related 
to  old  ideas. 

If  the  meaning  and  force  of  these  laws  sink  deep  and 
become  activ  ideals  in  the  teacher’s  mind,  every  lesson  will 
be  better  than  it  otherwise  could  possibly  be. 

THE  STUDY-RECITATION  LESSON 

This  form  of  the  lesson  (defined  on  page  8)  is  the 
appropriate  form  to  be  used  with  little  children  before  they 
can  use  books  or  do  any  real  study  by  themselves.  It  is 
used  a great  deal  by  our  best  American  elementary  teachers 
up  to  the  fourth  grade,  altho  the  daily  program  provides 
for  a distinct  study  period  in  some  subjects  long  before 
the  fourth  year.  It  seems  to  be  practically  the  sole  form 
of  the  lesson  in  the  German  elementary  schools  until  much 
longer.  The  best  American  teachers  use  it  to  some  extent 
all  thru  the  elementary  grades  and  in  the  high  school;  and 
it  is  a growing  conviction  that  its  use  can  be  extended  to 
great  advantage. 

The  first  advantage  of  the  study-recitation  lesson  is  that 
it  trains  pupils  how  to  study.  They  should  be  led  to  acquire 
right  methods  of  study  and  standards  of  excellence  in  all 
their  work  as  soon  as  possible  and  should  never  be  allowd 
to  let  these  deteriorate. 

Secondly,  no  time  is  fritterd  away  by  the  pupil’s  inability 
to  go  ahed  alone  or  by  a dilly-dally  attitude  toward  his  work. 
The  teacher  sets  up  some  definit,  attractiv  aim  at  each  suc- 
cessiv  stage  in  the  lesson  process,  stimulates  and  guides  the 
learning  activity  by  the  most  effectiv  and  direct  route  to 
definit  results.  As  often  as  her  judgment  dictates  she  can 
test  results  of  this  teaching-learning  exercise  by  questions 
and  reproduction  exercises. 

Owing  to  the  continuous  and  effectiv  use  of  time  and 
energy,  a third  value  arises.  Much  more  work  is  done  within 
a given  period.  The  German  elementary  school  gains  nearly 
two  years  on  us,  largely  because  of  the  use  of  this  form  of 
lesson. 


16 


The  Normal  School  Quarterly 

One  possibly  serious  danger  or  disadvantage  inheres  in 
this  kind  of  teaching.  A long  and  too  continuous  use  of  it 
is  likely  to  make  the  learner  dependent  on  the  teacher  for 
initiativ  and  guidance.  This  may  be  no  objection  for  child- 
ren of  a monarchical  government,  but  it  would  tend  to  defeat 
one  of  the  most  fundamental  purposes  in  the  education  of 
a self-governing  people.  Our  danger,  however,  is  found  in 
not  using  the  study-recitation  lesson  enough  to  get  its  maxi- 
mum values  without  suffering  from  any  of  its  possible  evils. 

Another  purpose  of  the  study- recitation  lesson  in  Ameri- 
can schools  is  to  teach  how  to  use  the  textbook.  Much  of 
the  deplord  loss  in  our  study  periods  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
pupils  cannot  read  a book;  that  is,  they  cannot  get  the  thought 
and  give  it  organization  in  their  own  thinking.  Here  the 
grammar-grade  and  the  high-school  teachers  can  make  a 
much-needed  contribution  to  the  training  of  their  pupils. 
No  dout  there  are  occasions  when  a college  class  would 
legitimately  profit  by  a study-recitation. 

A recitation  period  spent  now  and  then  in  this  kind  of 
work  in  the  intermediate,  grammar,  and  high-school  grades 
would  be  the  wisest  and  most  profitable  use  of  the  time,  not 
for  that  period  alone  but  because  of  its  favorable  influence 
upon  the  better  character  and  greater  amount  of  work  the 
pupils  would  be  able  to  do  in  their  study  period. 


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